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Zakhor
Geonim & al-Andalus701-800 apr. J.-C.

VIIIth century CE

Karaïsme et essor de la science juive

Summary

Anan ben David fonde le karaïsme (c. 760) qui rejette la tradition orale. Le savoir scientifique arabe pénètre le judaïsme. Sura et Poumbedita rayonnent.

Notable events

  • c. 760Anan ben David fonde le karaïsme ; rejet de la tradition orale, retour à l'Écriture seule.
  • c. 740Les Khazars, peuple turc de la Volga, adoptent le judaïsme comme religion royale.
  • c. 785Saint Agobard de Lyon commence à écrire contre les privilèges juifs carolingiens.
  • c. 790-820Premiers Massorètes à Tibériade : Aaron ben Asher, Ben Naftali, vocalisation du texte biblique.
  • 807Haroun al-Rachid impose aux dhimmis des signes distinctifs vestimentaires.
  • c. 850Compilation probable du Sefer Yetzira, premier texte mystique juif.

The century in narrative

Le VIIIᵉ siècle apr. J.-C. bouillonne. Sous la pax islamica établie par les Omeyyades puis les Abbassides, une nouvelle diversité naît dans le judaïsme. Deux phénomènes majeurs marquent ce siècle : le schisme karaïte et l'émergence d'un peuple entier — les Khazars — se convertissant au judaïsme. Parallèlement, la science et la grammaire hébraïques s'épanouissent au contact de l'arabe.

Le **karaïsme** est l'une des grandes crises du judaïsme médiéval. Vers 760, Anan ben David, descendant présumé de David et candidat déçu à l'exilarcat, fonde à Bagdad un mouvement dissident. Il rejette la Torah orale — la Mishna, le Talmud, toute l'interprétation rabbinique — pour ne retenir que le texte biblique, lu par chacun à la source (*miqra*, d'où *qara'im*, « ceux de l'Écriture »). Les Karaïtes observent un calendrier lunaire strict, refusent les bougies de Shabbat, interdisent certaines combinaisons alimentaires rejetées par les rabbins. Leur ascétisme attire. Ils essaiment en Égypte, en Terre d'Israël, en Crimée, en Espagne. Leur menace religieuse pour le judaïsme rabbinique sera réelle jusqu'au Xᵉ siècle, quand Saadia Gaon organisera la contre-offensive décisive.

Le deuxième phénomène extraordinaire est la **conversion des Khazars**. Ce peuple turc, établi sur la basse Volga et le nord du Caucase, contrôle un vaste empire commercial entre Byzance et le califat. Pour préserver son autonomie entre les deux puissances, le souverain Boulan — puis surtout Ovadia, au siècle suivant — choisit le judaïsme comme religion royale vers 740. Yehuda Halevi en tirera deux siècles plus tard son chef-d'œuvre, le *Kuzari*. L'empire khazar disparaîtra sous les coups des Rus' de Sviatoslav (965), mais sa mémoire traversera les siècles comme la seule conversion collective royale au judaïsme.

Pendant ce temps, à **Tibériade**, la Galilée juive connaît un dernier grand moment intellectuel. Depuis le VIIᵉ siècle, des érudits de la famille Ben Asher puis des Ben Naftali travaillent à fixer définitivement le texte biblique hébreu : vocalisation (nekoudot), accentuation (teamim), notations marginales. Ils deviennent les *Massorètes* (« transmetteurs »). Leur codex d'Alep (Keter Aram Tsova), complété vers 930, sera le texte massorétique de référence. Leur codex de Léningrad (rédigé 1008) est le plus ancien manuscrit biblique hébreu complet conservé. Sans eux, on ne prononcerait pas aujourd'hui la Torah.

Sous les Abbassides, la vie intellectuelle bouillonne à Bagdad. La *Maison de la Sagesse* (*Bayt al-Hikma*, fondée vers 832) traduit les sciences grecques en arabe. Les Juifs y participent activement, comme traducteurs et comme savants. Sahl al-Tabari est médecin de cour. Le philosophe Hiwi al-Balkhi (« Hiwi le Persan »), né au Khorassan, soulève deux cents questions critiques contre la Bible dans un écrit perdu — Saadia Gaon y répondra un siècle plus tard. L'hébreu se rénove comme langue de prière et de poésie, mais l'arabe devient la langue de la science et de la philosophie juives.

En Occident, le monde carolingien émerge. Charlemagne, couronné empereur en 800, accueille des Juifs dans son empire pour leurs talents commerciaux et diplomatiques. Il envoie une ambassade juive — menée par Isaac l'Hébreu — au calife Haroun al-Rachid ; la caravane revient de Bagdad avec un éléphant en cadeau. Mais à Lyon, l'archevêque Agobard commence à dénoncer les privilèges juifs ; son *De Insolentia Iudaeorum* prépare l'antijudaïsme carolingien.

Le VIIIᵉ siècle aura été celui d'un judaïsme travaillé par sa propre diversité et par sa rencontre avec l'intelligence arabe. Il prépare le grand siècle suivant — celui de Saadia Gaon.

Figures of the century (34)

Abba bar Dudai

Head of the academy of Pumbedita from approximately 772 to 780. Sherira Gaon adds to his name the mention "our grandfather," which does not, however, mean that Dudai was a direct ancestor of Sherira,…

Alnaharwanai , Jose

Hebrew scholar of the Geonic period, probably from Nehardea. He is the author of an alphabetical treatise in rhyme, in Hebrew, on the Jewish calendar, printed in the « Kerem Ḥemed » — a precious text…

Anan ben David

c. 715-795

Founder of the Karaite movement, which rejected the oral law (Talmud) and recognized only the written Bible. Karaism, the principal dissent within rabbinic Judaism, stimulated in reaction a deepening…

Bebai ha-Levi ben Abba de Nehar Pekod

778–789

Gaon of Soura at the end of the 8th century.

Cagliari, Abraham da

Abraham da Cagliari is rabbi in Cagliari, Sardinia, in the eighth century. He is mentioned by the historian of the period Antonio di Tharos and by Delotone in his « Ritmo di Gialeto », which reports…

Canaim de Cagliari

Italian archaeologist of the eighth century of whom nothing more is known except that, like his contemporary and compatriot Abraham di Cagliari, he devoted himself to copying and deciphering…

Charlemagne

King of the Franks and Emperor of the West, born in 742 and died in 814. His attitude toward the Jews, dictated mainly by political calculation, left them full freedom in their commercial affairs —…

Dodai ben Nahman

761–767

Gaon of Pumpadita, brother of Yehudai Gaon.

Hanania

Hanania (Aḥounaï) is exilarch, younger brother of Anan ben David, the founder of Karaism, and nephew, according to the Karaites, of exilarch Salomon ben Ḥasdaï. An anonymous Rabbinic author, cited by…

Ḥaninai Kahana B. Abraham

Ḥaninaï Kahana ben Abraham is gaon of the academy of Poumbedita from 782 to 786. Almost nothing is known of his life or work, except that he displeased the exilarch and was removed from office, with…

Haninai Kahana ben Huna

769–774

Gaon of Soura at the end of the 8th century.

Ḥasdai I

Ḥasdaï I is the third exilarch of the Arab period, died in 730, descendant of Bostanaï I and successor of Ḥanina ben Adaï. His eldest son, Solomon ben Ḥasdaï, succeeded him as exilarch, while his…

Idit

Idit is an amora whose only known trace is a controversy with a heretic, reported by Naḥman (Sanh. 38b). The exact reading of his name would actually be "Idi", which identifies him with the…

Jacob de Nehar Pekod

712–730

Gaon of Soura in the early 8th century

Jose B. Abin

José b. Abin, son of R. Abin I and master of R. Abin II, was a Palestinian amora of the fifth generation, in the fourth century. First a student of José of Yodqart, he left him, disappointed by his…

Judah B. Ammi

Palestinian amora of the third generation, in the 4th century, perhaps son of the famous R. Ammi. His house was a meeting place for scholars — R. Zeira, exhausted by study, would sit on his threshold…

Julius de Pavie

One of the earliest Jews of medieval Europe known by name. Around 760, he disputed in Pavia with master Pierre de Pise on the truth of Christianity, a debate mentioned by Alcuin, friend of…

Kaula Al-yahudi

Jewish general of the 8th century, appointed by Tariq, who fought valiantly at Xérès against the Visigoths at the head of an army of Jews and Berbers, and occupied part of Catalonia. Having risen up…

Machir

Babylonian scholar settled in Narbonne, France, at the end of the eighth century, whose descendants led this important community for generations. According to a tradition reported by Abraham ibn…

Malka ben Aḥa

Gaon of Pumbedita from 771 to 773. The only known fact about him is that he opposed, with Ḥaninaï Kahana ben Huna, Naṭronaï ben Ḥabibaï, who was attempting to supplant the exilarch Zakkaï ben…

Mashallah ibn Athari

c. 740-815

Jewish astronomer and astrologer of Basra, one of the founders of Arab astronomy. He took part in choosing the site of Baghdad for Caliph al-Mansur (762). His astronomical treatises were translated…

Naḥman bar Isaac

Babylonian amora of the fifth generation, died in 356, disciple like Raba of R. Naḥman ben Jacob. Noted as a youth for his halakhic learning, he became resh kallah and then, at Raba's death,…

Natronai B. Néhémie

Gaon of Pumbedita from 719 to 730, son-in-law of the exilarch Hasdaï I. His pride in his birth and his arrogance toward students led many of them to leave the academy, where they did not return until…

Natronai ben Nehemiah

c. 719

Gaon of Pumbedita at the beginning of the 8th century.

Natronaï Gaon

m. c. 858

Gaon of Sura, he composed the first collection of halakhic responsa sent to the communities of Spain. These legal questions and answers became the principal means of communicating Jewish law between…

Nissi ben Noah

Karaite scholar who lived in Basra then in Jerusalem, in the eighth century, probably son of Abou Nissi Noah, contemporary and elder of Anan. An orphan from childhood and raised by a poor…

Pavie, Julius de

Italian scholar of the eighth century, one of the first Jews of Europe known by name. According to Alcuin, he conducted around 760 in Pavia a religious controversy with the grammarian Maestro Pietro…

Salomon L'exilarque

Samuel Ha-nasi

Exilarch in Baghdad, probably between 773 and 816. His existence was known only from a difficult passage of a manuscript claiming that the pious held the basis of their liturgy from Aaron ben Samuel…

Saul ben Anan

750–780

rabbi

Sérène

False messiah of the early 8th century, from Syria, known through a responsum of Natronaï Gaon. He presented himself as the Messiah, instituted observances contrary to Rabbinic law — abolition of…

Simeon Kayyara

VIIIe–IXe siècle

Presumed author of the Halakhot Guedolot, a major halakhic code.

Wahb ibn Munabbih

Muslim traditionist of Dhimar, in Yemen, died at ninety years of age, in 725, 728, 732 or 737 of the common era according to Arab authors. Of Persian descent through his father and Himyarite through…

Yehoudaï Gaon

m. c. 761

Gaon (head) of the academy of Sura, author of the Halakhot Pesuqot, the first post-talmudic halakhic code. His work marks the beginning of the legal codification that would culminate in the Shulhan…