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Geonim & al-Andalus801-900 apr. J.-C.

IXth century CE

Saadia Gaon et la philosophie religieuse

Summary

Saadia Gaon (882-942) traduit la Bible en arabe, rédige le premier traité de philosophie juive (Emounot veDeot) et affronte les karaïtes. Hasdai ibn Shaprut devient vizir du calife de Cordoue.

Notable events

  • 928-942Saadia ben Yossef al-Fayyumi dirige l'académie de Sura ; il signe Saadia Gaon.
  • c. 933Saadia publie Emounot ve-Deot, premier traité systématique de philosophie juive.
  • c. 930Fermeture progressive de l'Académie de Sura ; basculement vers Poumbedita.
  • 929Abd al-Rahman III proclame le califat de Cordoue ; apogée de l'Espagne musulmane.
  • c. 960Hasdai ibn Shaprut devient ministre et diplomate d'Abd al-Rahman III.
  • c. 965Hasdai correspond avec le roi khazar Joseph ; échange documenté de lettres royales.

The century in narrative

Le IXᵉ siècle apr. J.-C. est dominé par la figure colossale de **Saadia ben Yossef al-Fayyumi**, mieux connu comme **Saadia Gaon**. Né en 882 à Fayoum en Égypte, mort en 942 à Sura en Babylonie, il est le plus grand rabbin du premier millénaire après la clôture du Talmud. Il concentre en sa personne toutes les tâches qu'un grand penseur juif pouvait avoir à assumer à son époque : théologien, philosophe, polémiste, grammairien, poète, traducteur.

**Théologien et philosophe.** Saadia écrit en 933 le premier grand traité systématique de pensée juive : le *Kitab al-Amanat wa'l-I'tiqadat*, traduit en hébreu sous le titre *Emounot ve-Deot* (« Croyances et opinions »). Il y confronte le judaïsme aux défis du kalâm musulman mou'tazilite, démontre rationnellement l'existence de Dieu, sa création du monde *ex nihilo*, la liberté humaine, la révélation, la résurrection des morts. Il prépare toute la philosophie juive médiévale qui culminera avec Maïmonide trois siècles plus tard.

**Polémiste.** Saadia mène la contre-offensive contre le karaïsme. Il rédige contre Anan ben David des traités virulents. Il démontre que la Torah écrite est inintelligible sans la Torah orale : qu'est-ce qu'un *tefillin* sans la tradition qui définit sa forme ? Qu'est-ce qu'une *cacherout* sans le Talmud ? Il parvient à endiguer le karaïsme, qui restera une minorité. Il répond aussi aux objections de Hiwi al-Balkhi. Il écrit des commentaires bibliques.

**Traducteur.** Saadia traduit la Bible en arabe — le *Tafsir* —, qui deviendra pendant mille ans la Bible des Juifs arabophones (Égypte, Syrie, Maghreb, Yémen). Il accompagne sa traduction d'un commentaire rationaliste. Il écrit aussi le premier dictionnaire hébreu, *Ha-Agron*, et une grammaire hébraïque.

**Chef politique.** En 928, il est nommé Gaon de Sura — un étranger (Égyptien) à un poste habituellement réservé aux Babyloniens. Il s'oppose vite à l'exilarque David ben Zakkai sur une question d'héritage ; chacun excommunie l'autre. Saadia est déposé, poursuit son œuvre en exil à Bagdad, puis est réintégré par le calife lui-même. Après sa mort en 942, l'académie de Sura décline. La préminence de Poumbedita, sous Hai Gaon (939-1038), prolonge l'autorité gaonique encore un siècle.

Pendant que Saadia rayonne à l'Est, un autre foyer juif majeur s'éveille à l'Ouest. En 929, Abd al-Rahman III proclame à Cordoue le califat indépendant des Omeyyades. Cordoue devient la plus grande ville d'Europe, avec plus de 400 000 habitants, la plus grande bibliothèque, les plus belles mosquées. À sa cour monte un médecin juif cordouan de génie : **Hasdai ibn Shaprut** (915-970). Fils d'un notable de Jaén, il devient médecin personnel du calife, puis son ministre des finances et son diplomate. Il négocie avec Byzance, avec Otton Iᵉʳ le Grand, avec les royaumes chrétiens du Nord. Il fonde un cercle d'érudits juifs à Cordoue : Menahem ibn Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, premiers grammairiens de l'hébreu en Espagne. Il reçoit des rapports étonnants sur le royaume juif des Khazars et échange avec le roi Joseph une correspondance devenue légendaire.

Le IXᵉ siècle fait ainsi basculer le centre intellectuel : Sura faiblit, Cordoue s'éveille. Dans les cinquante ans qui suivront, la péninsule Ibérique deviendra la matrice du judaïsme mondial. L'âge d'or andalou est à portée.

Figures of the century (58)

Abraham ben Sherira

Gaon of Pumbedita, successor of Rabbi Joseph bar Abba, from 816 to 828. Inclined toward mysticism, he was credited with the gift of predicting the future by observing the movement of tree branches;…

Abraham Prochownik

Legendary figure who was said to have been designated prince of Poland in 842, under the following circumstances: after the death of Prince Popiel, the Poles gathered in council at Kruszwica and…

Abumaï

Gaon of Soura from 811 to 819, brother of rabbi Mordekhaï, he appears to have been the father of the gaon of Soura Cohen-Ṣedeq, renowned for his numerous ritual and judicial decisions.

Abumaï ben Abraham

Agobard

Archbishop of Lyon born in 779 and died on June 6, 840, one of the principal adversaries of Judaism in the 9th century, he raised objections against the protections granted to the Jews of Lyon by…

Aḥadboi

Babylonian Amora of the sixth and seventh generations, he presided over the academy of Soura in its decline, but only for six months: his death was caused by an earthquake that occurred on the day of…

Amram ben Sheshna Ou Shushna

Head of the academy of Soura, died around 875, student of Natronaï II from whom he received the title of gaon during his master's lifetime; at his death, around 857, he fully inherited his dignity.…

Amram Gaon

m. c. 875

Gaon of Sura, author of the Seder Rav Amram, the first complete liturgical compilation (siddur) in Jewish history. Composed in response to a question from the Jews of Spain, this foundational text…

Amulo , Théodobold

Archbishop of Lyon from 841, under the reign of Charles the Bald, died in 852. Trained in hatred of the Jews by his teacher Agobard, he attempts, with the bishop of Reims and the archbishop of Sens,…

Asaph

Judging by his title "Mar Rab", he was one of the geonim, living probably toward the middle of the ninth century. His name appears in a fragment of the Cairo Genizah, the author of which might be…

Baḥtawi, Abu Ya'aḳub Joseph, le Babylonien

Karaite scholar who lived in the ninth century, nicknamed « the master of the Diaspora » for the liveliness of his spirit, none of his works have survived, but they are known through the quotations…

Benjamin ben Moïse al-Nahawendi

actif au IXᵉ siècle (première moitié)

One of the greatest scholars of medieval Karaism, to the point that some consider him the true founder of Karaism as it was transmitted. His name refers to Nahavand, in Persia. He wrote, mainly in…

Cyril

Constantine, called Cyril after entering monachism, is the apostle of the Slavs and author of the Slavic alphabet; he was born in Salonique around 820 and died in Rome on February 14, 869. In 848,…

Dar'i, Moses

David ben Judah

Exilarch of Babylonia from 820 to 834, David ben Juda succeeded Iskawi II at a time of decline for this dignity; his election, contested by a faction favorable to the Karaite Daniel, was submitted to…

David ben Zakkaï

850–940

exilarch of the Jewish community of Babylon

Eldad ben Mahli Ha-dani

Merchant and traveler of the 9th century who claimed to be from an independent Jewish state in East Africa populated by the tribes of Dan, Asher, Gad and Naphtali. Traveling through Babylonia,…

Eldad ha-Dani

c. 880

A mysterious Jewish traveler who claimed to come from an independent Jewish kingdom in Africa, a descendant of the tribe of Dan. His accounts of the Ten Lost Tribes fascinated medieval Jewish…

Hadoram

Hai ben David

Hai ben David is dayyan then gaon of Pumbedita from 890 to 897, mentioned in the Halakhot of Isaac ibn Ghayyat concerning a usage of Baghdad which he could not abolish. According to Karaite sources…

Hai ben Nahshon

886–896

Gaon of Soura, son of Nahshon ben Zadok.

Haman L'agagite

Haman, son of Hammedata, called the Agagite, is the grand vizier of King Ahasuerus in the book of Esther, descendant of Agag, king of the Amalekites, who remained in Jewish Memory as « the persecutor…

Hananel ben Amittai

Hananel ben Amittaï is the spiritual leader of the Jewish community of Oria, Italy, in the 9th century, descended according to tradition from a Jerusalem family deported to Italy by Titus. The…

Ḥiwi Al-balkhi

Biblical exegete and critic of the last quarter of the ninth century, born in Balkh, in Persia. He composed a work opposing two hundred objections to the divine origin of the Bible, combated by…

Ḥiyya ben Solomon Ḥabib

Spanish Talmudist of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, native of Barcelona and contemporary of Salomon Adret, without however having been his student. He is the author of the « Sefer…

Ismaël D'akbara

Founder of the Jewish sect of the Akbarites, active in the era of Caliph Al-Mu'taṣim (833-841). Native of Akbara, in Iraq, ten parasangs from Baghdad, he had the reputation of a vain man and engaged…

Jacob ben Mordecai Ha-kohen

Gaon of Sura from 801 to 815, where he succeeded Hilaï ben Mari, Jacob ben Mordekhaï Ha-Cohen inclined as much as possible toward the most lenient interpretation of the Law in his decisions, which…

Jacob Qirqisani

890–960

10th century Karaite dogmatist and exegete

Japhia

Jehonidab

Son of Rekab the Kenite and founder of the Rechabites, Jehonadab met the king of Israel Jehu as he was heading to Samaria to root out the worship of Baal; becoming his ally, he accompanied him in his…

Jehoshabeath

Daughter of Joram, king of Judah, and wife of the high priest Jehoiada, Josabeth saved with her husband her nephew Joash from the hands of Athaliah, who had massacred the rest of the royal family.

Joseph ben Abba

Joseph ben Abba was Gaon of Poumbedita for two years; he died, according to Cherira Gaon, in 816 — Abraham ibn Daoud, who names him Joseph b. Juda, places his death in 824. Preferred over Mar Aaron,…

Joseph ben Noah Ha-baṣri

Joseph ben Noah ha-Batsri, a Karaite scholar of the eighth and ninth centuries, brother of Nissim ben Noah, translated the Pentateuch into Arabic with a commentary, from which Abou al-Faraj Haroun…

Joseph Gorionides

850–950

rabbi and historian

Judah ibn Ḳuraish

Grammarian and Hebraist lexicographer, born in Tahort, in North Africa, active in the eighth and ninth centuries. His contribution to comparative philology was of great value: he recognized that…

Judah ibn Quraysh

IXe–Xe siècle

Philologist of Tahort, author of the Risala, comparative dictionary of Semitic languages.

Kohen Tzedek ben Abimai

832–843

Gaon of Soura in the 9th century.

Kohen-Ẓedek bar Ivomai (bar Abimai)

gaon de 838 à 848

Gaon, whose responsa — written in Hebrew (not in Aramaic as most earlier geonim) and in concise terms — cover all domains of halakha, particularly the laws of blessings and texts of the liturgy. He…

Masarjawaih Ou Masarjoyah Ou Masarjis

One of the earliest Jewish physicians of Arabic language and the earliest translator from Syriac, active in Basra around 883. He translates into Arabic the Pandects of the archdeacon Aaron, from…

Menahem B. Joseph B. Ḥiyya

Gaon of Pumbedita from 858 to 860, probably elected more by virtue of his father's merits than his own. He had as rival the gaon Mar Mattithia ben Rabbi, who surpassed him in Talmudic learning, and…

Moïse B. Asher

Masorete, father of Aaron, generally called Ben Asher, active in Tiberias in the second half of the ninth century, descendant of Asher the Great, one of the first known Masoretes of Tiberias.…

Moïse Kahana ben Jacob

Gaon of Soura from 832 to 843, son of the gaon Jacob ha-Cohen ben Mardochée (801–815). Reputed to be versed in Kabbalah and amulets, he leaves responsa on inheritance and on the use of untanned skin…

Musa de Tiflis Ou Al-tiflisi

Karaite founder of a new sect in the early 9th century, originating from Za'faran in Persia — whence his name « Al-Za'farani » — he later settled in Tiflis, which gave him the surname « Al-Tiflisi »;…

Nahshon ben Zadok

872–879

Gaon of Soura, known for the calendrical cycle Iggoul de-Rav Nahshon.

Naṭronai Ii., B. Hilai

Gaon of the academy of Soura in the early second half of the ninth century, he succeeded Sar Shalom. Although he was already elderly upon taking office and his tenure lasted less than a decade, he…

Palṭoi B. Abayi

Gaon of Pumbedita from 842 to 858, first of a lineage of notable geonim who extended the influence of this academy to the point that the exilarch had to go there to hold a public assembly. Rigorous…

Paltoi ben Abaye

841–858

Gaon of Pumbedita, ordered the copying of an annotated Talmud for Spain.

Saadia B. Joseph

Gaon of Soura and founder of scientific activity in Judaism, born in Dilaẓ, Upper Egypt, in 892, and died in Soura in 942. His surname "Al-Fayyumi" refers to the Fayoum, his native region; he claims,…

Saadia Gaon

882-942

Gaon of Sura, the first great Jewish philosopher. His Book of Beliefs and Opinions (Emunot ve-Deot) founds rational Jewish philosophy. He translated the Bible into Arabic (Tafsir) and combated…

Sahl

Physician, astrologer, and mathematician of the 9th century, active around 786-845, father of the physician Ali ben Sahl. He translated the "Almagest" of Ptolemy; Steinschneider identifies him with…

Sar Shalom ben Boaz

843–853

Gaon of Soura, author of numerous responsa.

Sherira B. Ḥanina

Gaon of Pumbedita, born around 900, died around 1000, descended from families that held the gaonateship on both sides, which he traced back to a branch of the exilarchate that had renounced its…

Sherira Gaon

906-1006

Gaon of Pumbedita, author of the Epistle of Sherira Gaon (Iggeret Rav Sherira), the first history of rabbinic Judaism. This fundamental document traces the chain of transmission of the oral law from…

Shulamit Elizur

Professor in the Department of Hebrew Literature at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, specialist in piyyut and Hebrew poetry from late antiquity to the Middle Ages, as well as the history of…

Yehuda Karish

mentionné en 890

Rabbi, 9th century. Mentioned in 4650 of the Hebrew calendar (890). Listed in Malkhei Rabbanan (Yosef Ben Naim, 1931), f. 43-2.

Zadok Gaon

Gaon of Soura from 820 to 821, known by a responsum cited in the « Sha'are Ẓedeq »: when he judged an accused guilty without being able to inflict sufficient punishment on him, he enjoined him to go…

Zemah ben Hayyim

879–886

Gaon of Soura at the end of the 9th century.

Zemah ben Paltoi

872–890

Gaon of Pumbedita, author of a Talmudic lexicon.