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Zakhor
Geonim & al-Andalus601-700 apr. J.-C.

VIIth century CE

Conquête arabe et reconfiguration du monde juif

Summary

L'islam naissant (622) conquiert Jérusalem (638), l'Égypte, le Maghreb, puis l'Espagne (711). Le statut de *dhimmi* stabilise la vie juive. L'hébreu se ranime comme langue littéraire.

Notable events

  • 638Le calife Omar prend Jérusalem ; les Juifs y sont à nouveau autorisés.
  • 642Conquête arabe de l'Égypte ; les Juifs alexandrins passent sous domination musulmane.
  • 670-698Conquête du Maghreb ; Kairouan devient grand centre juif.
  • 711Tariq ibn Ziyad traverse à Gibraltar ; conquête arabe de l'Espagne wisigothique en quelques années.
  • 717Pacte d'Omar II : codification du statut de dhimmi (protégés) pour Juifs et chrétiens.
  • 762Fondation de Bagdad par al-Mansour ; nouveau centre du monde juif oriental.

The century in narrative

Le VIIᵉ siècle apr. J.-C. — et sa pénétration dans le VIIIᵉ — opère la plus grande transformation du monde juif depuis l'exil babylonien. En un demi-siècle, les Arabes unifient sous la bannière de l'islam un espace qui va de l'Espagne à l'Indus. Et ce sont les Juifs — disséminés depuis plus d'un demi-millénaire dans tout cet espace — qui en bénéficient le plus.

Les conquêtes sont foudroyantes. Sous Omar, deuxième calife, Damas tombe en 635, Jérusalem en 638, l'Égypte en 642, les villes iraniennes entre 637 et 651. Sous les Omeyyades (661-750), le Maghreb est pris en un demi-siècle, et l'Espagne wisigothique conquise à partir de 711 par Tariq ibn Ziyad et Moussa ibn Noçayr. L'empire musulman s'étend de l'Atlantique à l'Asie centrale — du fleuve Indus au Mississippi des idées de la culture antique.

Pour les Juifs, cette révolution a trois effets décisifs. **D'abord, la liberté de mouvement et de culte.** Le statut de *dhimmi* — protégé par le pacte d'Omar II codifié vers 717 — accorde aux Juifs (et aux chrétiens) de pratiquer leur religion moyennant paiement de la jizya (capitation) et de la kharaj (impôt foncier). Il interdit de construire de nouvelles synagogues plus hautes que les mosquées, impose des signes vestimentaires distinctifs, et restreint les témoignages devant les tribunaux. Mais il rend la vie juive *possible et stable*, en deçà des massacres byzantins ou wisigothiques qui l'avaient frappée. Les Juifs peuvent circuler librement dans tout l'empire.

**Ensuite, l'unification géographique.** Sous un même pouvoir, des Juifs cessent d'être divisés entre Empires perse et byzantin. Ils forment désormais une diaspora unifiée, de Cordoue à Kairouan, de Fès à Alexandrie, de Jérusalem à Bagdad, de Sura à Poumbedita. Un marchand juif peut voyager en caravane de l'Atlantique à l'Oxus. Le *Radhanite*, marchand juif itinérant entre Europe carolingienne et Chine, devient une figure commerciale majeure des VIIIe-IXe siècles. Il joue un rôle clé dans l'introduction de la soie, des épices, des métaux en Occident, et transmet des savoirs médicaux, mathématiques, philosophiques.

**Enfin, le réveil intellectuel.** La langue arabe, devenue celle de l'administration, de la science et de la philosophie, entre dans la culture juive. Les Juifs écrivent en arabe mais avec des lettres hébraïques (judéo-arabe). Ils adoptent les sciences grecques redécouvertes par les traducteurs arabes — Aristote, Euclide, Galien, Ptolémée. Ils ouvrent leur théologie aux débats du kalâm musulman. Ils fondent leur grammaire hébraïque à partir des grammairiens arabes. Le siècle prépare le formidable épanouissement de Saadia Gaon, Hasdai ibn Shaprut, Samuel HaNagid et l'âge d'or andalou.

Sura et Poumbedita s'épanouissent sous les Gaonim. Ils correspondent avec toutes les communautés, envoient des *shadarim* (émissaires), rédigent des responsa sur chaque question nouvelle. L'exilarcat (*Resh Galouta*) conserve son autorité politique reconnue par le calife abbasside. La fondation de Bagdad par al-Mansour en 762 inaugure une ère d'or pour les Juifs de Babylonie : la capitale devient aussi un grand centre juif, et le restera jusqu'aux massacres mongols du XIIIᵉ siècle.

En Espagne, la conquête arabe ouvre la porte à un millier d'années de judaïsme séfarade. Les Juifs y étaient humiliés sous les Wisigoths ; ils deviennent des administrateurs, traducteurs, médecins, banquiers. Les *Banu Shaprut*, *Banu Ezra*, *Banu Nagrela* émergent. Cordoue devient, à côté de Bagdad et Kairouan, un des trois grands foyers du judaïsme mondial. Le VIIᵉ siècle a fait basculer le judaïsme de l'Antiquité tardive à la brillante civilisation médiévale.

Figures of the century (41)

Abdallah ibn Saba

Yemenite Jew of the seventh century, settled in Medina, where he embraced Islam before being banished for criticizing the administration of Caliph Othman. In Egypt, he founded a sect hostile to…

Abdallah ibn Salam

Jew of the tribe of the Banu Ḳainuḳa'a, in Medina, converted to Islam two years before the death of Muhammad, died in 663; first named Al-Husain, he claimed to be descended from Joseph and took at…

Abdallah ibn Ubaiy

Datation incertaine : VIIe siècle (hypothèse) — d'après Contemporain de Mahomet, expédition 630, actif début 7e siècle.

Chief of the Arab tribe of the Banu al-Khazraj in Medina and influential opponent of Muhammad, at the head of the party that Muhammad called « Hanifa ». Allied with the Banu Ḳainuḳa'a, he prevented…

Adoi

Father of Hananiah, exilarch (prince of the captivity) who flourished around 700, his name is the Persian form of a familiar Semitic name — Ida, or Ada (Adda) —, known from Jewish and Palmyrene…

Aha de Shabha

c. 680–752

Author of the Sheiltot, the first halakhic collection of the Geonim period

Al-rabi ibn Abu Al-ḥuḳaiḳ

Jewish poet of the tribe of Banu al-Nadir, in Medina, active shortly before the Hijra (622). Like most Jews of Medina, he took part in rivalries between the two Arab tribes of the city and…

Alfasi, Isaac ben Reuben

Sometimes presented as grandson of Isaac Alfasi, he is commonly cited as the author of the « Sha'are Shebu'ot », a treatise in twenty chapters on oaths, usually printed with the « Halakot » of…

Amnon

ANAN BEN DAVID, Fondateur de la Secte Karaïte

Founder of the Karaite sect, active in the second half of the 8th century, at a time of great religious ferment within Oriental Judaism under the effect of Arab conquests. Claiming the dignity of…

Ange, Meïr ben Abraham, de Belgrade

Renowned preacher of the 16th and 17th centuries, died in Safed after traveling through Poland, Italy and Greece. His « Massoret ha-Berit » (Tradition of the Covenant), seven hundred chained homilies…

Asma

Arab poetess, contemporary of Muhammad, daughter of Marwan, married to a man of the tribe of Banou Hatma. After the murder of the Jewish poet Abou Afak, who despite his great age had stirred up his…

Aus de Ḳuraiẓa

Poet belonging to the Jewish tribe of the Qurayza, in Medina. When this tribe is besieged by Muhammad, the wife of Aous saves his life by embracing Islam and calls her husband to do the same; he…

Bebai B. Abba, R.

Palestinian aggadist of uncertain date, rarely cited, whose name also appears in the forms "Bebai Rabbah", "Beba Raba" and "Beba Abba". He is the author of a confession formula for the Day of…

Benjamin de Tibériade

Benjamin of Tiberias is a wealthy Jew accused of hostility toward Christians when the emperor Heraclius came to Jerusalem in 628, during the war against the Persians. Despite this accusation, the…

Bostanaï

c. 618-670

The first Jewish exilarch under Arab rule, he was confirmed in his office by Caliph Omar. His marriage to a captive Sasanian princess gave rise to a famous rabbinic controversy over the status of his…

Bulan

Bulan is a king of the Khazars who embraces Judaism in 620. According to the letter addressed in 960 by Joseph, khagan of the Khazars, to Hasdai ibn Shaprut, one of his ancestors, Bulan, received in…

Dagobert

King of France (602-638), Dagobert, wishing to emulate the religious zeal of the Byzantine and Visigothic sovereigns Heraclius and Sisebut, who persecuted the Jews, decreed around 629 that Jews who…

Élie Ha-'adeni

Rabbi and liturgical poet of Cochin, India, native of Aden — hence his surname « Ha-'Adeni » —, whose dates of birth and death are unknown. He composed « Azharot » on the six hundred and thirteen…

Éliezer B. Jacob

Hanina de Nehar Pekod

689–694

Gaon of Soura at the end of the 7th century

Hilkiah

Ḥisda

Babylonian Amora of the third generation, died at the age of ninety-two, from a priestly family. Disciple of Rab and then of Huna, he was at first poor before enriching himself as a brewer, and…

Huna

Babylonian Amora of the second generation, head of the academy of Sura, principal disciple of Rab, from whom he acquired such knowledge that he was counted among the dearest wishes of his disciple…

Ḥuyayy ibn Akhṭab

Chief of the tribe of Banu al-Nadir, executed in Medina in March 627, the most determined opponent of Muhammad according to his biographer Ibn Hisham, who nicknamed him "the enemy of Allah." After…

Isidore de Séville

Archbishop of Seville, active in the sixth-seventh centuries. He presided over the fourth Council of Toledo, convened by Visigothic king Sisenand in 633, where he asserted the principle that Jews…

Jabal ibn Jawwal

Jewish Arab poet of the 7th century, contemporary of Muhammad. His Jewishness is reported only by Ibn Ḥajar, who specifies that he later embraced Islam; other Arab authors cite him without mentioning…

Javan

Julien de Tolède

Primate of Spain, born and baptized in Toledo, died in 690; first of a long lineage of princes of the Church of Jewish origin who persecuted their former coreligionists, according to Isidore of Beja…

Ka'b Al-aḥbar

One of the most eminent fathers of the Muslim tradition, who introduced into this literature the method and many details of Jewish haggada; died in 32 or 35 of the Hegira (652 or 655 of the Common…

Kahina Dahiya Bint Thabitah ibn Tifan

Jewish princess of a Berber tribe also bearing the name of Kahina, she lived in the second half of the seventh century and reigned, from the Aurès mountains, over the most powerful tribe of the…

Ḳalir, Eleazar

One of the oldest and most prolific liturgical poets (payyetanim), whose name, origin and era remain disputed in modern Jewish scholarship — hypotheses placing his activity between the end of the…

Kinanah

Opponent of Muhammad, son of the poet Al-Rabi' ibn Abou al-Ḥuqayq, active in Medina in the 7th century before the appearance of the Prophet. After the expulsion of the Banou al-Nadir, of which he was…

Mahomet

570-632

Prophet of Islam, whose preaching in Medina involved significant interactions with the Jewish tribes (Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, Banu Qurayza). The Quran's borrowings from biblical and talmudic…

Mar Isaac

c. 640

Gaon of Sura at the time of the Arab conquest, he negotiated the status of the Jewish community of Babylonia with the new Muslim masters. The transition to Arab rule inaugurated an era of relative…

Marḥab ibn Al-ḥarith

Warrior and Arab Jewish poet of Himyarite origin, killed around 628 during the attack on Khaybar by Mohammed, after having distinguished himself by his bravery in the defense of one of the oasis…

Messod Aflalo

mort en 653

Rabbi, seventh century. Died in 4413 of the Hebrew era (653). Son of Mussa. Recorded in Malkhei Rabbanan (Yosef Ben Naim, 1931), f. 86-1.

Omar ibn al-Khattab

583-644

Second caliph of Islam, conqueror of Jerusalem (637). He permitted the Jews to return to pray in Jerusalem, from which they had been banned by the Byzantines. The Pact of Omar defined the status of…

Omar Ier

Second caliph of Islam, he succeeded Abu Bakr in 634 and was assassinated in 644. A great organizer of the Muslim state, he placed Syria, Persia, and Egypt under Arab domination, established the…

Rabbah Gaon

Gaon of Pumbedita, in office from 640 to 650 according to Halévy or from 670 to 680 according to Grätz, contemporary of Houna, gaon of Sura. With the latter, he institutes a major reform of divorce:…

Rabbah Tusfa'ah

Babylonian amora of the seventh generation, disciple of Rabina I and contemporary of Rabina II. His principal work is to have completed, through additions and amplifications, the compilation of the…

Yannai

First paytan to employ rhyme and to sign his poems with an acrostic, probably active in Palestine in the first half of the seventh century. A prolific poet whose works are mostly lost, only three…