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Zakhor
Geonim & al-Andalus501-600 apr. J.-C.

VIth century CE

Les Gaonim de Babylone

Summary

Les académies de Soura et Poumbedita, dirigées par les Gaonim, deviennent l'autorité halakhique mondiale. Massacres byzantins en Palestine (602-629) ; l'expansion musulmane commence.

Notable events

  • 529Justinien ferme l'Académie néoplatonicienne d'Athènes ; novelle 146 restreint les Juifs.
  • 589Les Wisigoths d'Espagne se convertissent au catholicisme ; début des persécutions.
  • 614Les Perses prennent Jérusalem avec l'aide des Juifs ; massacre des chrétiens.
  • 628Héraclius reprend Jérusalem ; représailles contre les Juifs.
  • 622Hégire : Muhammad émigre de La Mecque à Médine ; fondation de l'islam.
  • 638Le calife Omar prend Jérusalem ; fin définitive du pouvoir byzantin en Terre d'Israël.

The century in narrative

Le VIᵉ siècle apr. J.-C. est le siècle du passage. D'un côté, la fin de l'Antiquité tardive ; de l'autre, l'émergence de la civilisation médiévale. Pour les Juifs, c'est un siècle de pressions byzantines, de persécutions wisigothiques, d'espoirs perses déçus — et à la toute fin, l'apparition en Arabie d'un prophète nommé Muhammad qui va transformer leur condition pour mille ans.

En Occident, l'Empire romain d'Occident est tombé ; les royaumes barbares qui se partagent l'héritage — Francs, Wisigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandales, Lombards — adoptent peu à peu le catholicisme. Les Wisigoths d'Espagne, initialement ariens et tolérants, se convertissent au catholicisme en 589 sous le roi Recarède. Commencent alors les premières lois antijuives systématiques d'Europe occidentale : interdictions de propriété terrienne, de charges publiques, obligations de baptême, persécution des crypto-juifs. Ces lois préfigureront sinistrement l'Inquisition espagnole mille ans plus tard.

En Orient, l'Empire byzantin de Justinien (527-565) édicte la fameuse *Novelle 146* (553) : elle régule la lecture publique de la Torah dans les synagogues, interdit la Mishna (« tradition humaine »), encourage la lecture en grec avec la Septante. C'est la plus ancienne intervention étatique explicite dans la liturgie juive. Justinien ferme aussi l'Académie néoplatonicienne d'Athènes (529), signe de la fin d'une tolérance intellectuelle antique.

En Babylonie, l'Empire sassanide se durcit par moments contre les Juifs (Péroz, Kavad) mais les académies tiennent. Les *savoraïm* — génération transitoire après les amoraïm — polissent le Talmud. Ils ajoutent les dernières explications, signalent les incohérences, établissent la version définitive. Vers 590, avec Mar Simona et Mar Rabbai, leur génération s'achève. L'ère des *Gaonim* commence : le Gaon — « excellence » — est le titre porté par le chef de Sura ou Poumbedita. Pendant quatre siècles et demi, les Gaonim constituent l'autorité halakhique mondiale : on leur envoie des questions par caravanes depuis Kairouan, Fès, Tolède, Narbonne, Mayence. Leurs réponses — les *responsa* — forment un corpus immense.

Les années 610-628 sont particulièrement dramatiques en Terre sainte. Profitant de la faiblesse byzantine, le Grand Roi perse Khosro II envahit le Proche-Orient en 614. Les Juifs, maltraités par Byzance, l'accueillent en libérateur et participent au siège de Jérusalem. Le Patriarche chrétien Zacharie est emmené en captivité à Ctésiphon, avec la Vraie Croix. Les chrétiens de Jérusalem sont massacrés ou vendus comme esclaves. Les Juifs obtiennent le contrôle temporaire de la ville — pour quelques années seulement. En 628, l'empereur Héraclius reconquiert la Terre sainte, ramène la Vraie Croix en triomphe, et exerce des représailles terribles contre les Juifs. Ceux de Galilée fuient en masse.

Mais à l'extrême fin du siècle suivant, tout bascule. En 622, un marchand de La Mecque nommé Muhammad fuit vers Yathrib (qui prendra le nom de Médine) : c'est l'*Hégire*, année zéro de l'islam. Dans les oasis de Médine, trois tribus juives (Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, Banu Qurayza) sont ses premiers interlocuteurs. Muhammad prie d'abord tourné vers Jérusalem, reprend le jeûne de Yom Kippour, valide le mode de vie monothéiste. Puis, devant leur refus de le reconnaître comme prophète, il rompt : la qibla change pour La Mecque, les tribus juives sont expulsées ou massacrées (627). Mais au-delà de ce drame local, l'islam naissant intègre la Torah, les prophètes, Abraham, Moïse, David, Salomon, Jésus dans sa propre lignée. Un nouveau dialogue abrahamique s'ouvre. Il façonnera la vie juive pour mille ans.

Figures of the century (36)

Abraham le Moine

Palestinian monk established in a monastery on Mount Sinai, born around the end of the sixth century, he converted to Judaism around 615. After a long inner struggle against his doubts about…

Aḥa D'irak

A Babylonian to whom the invention of the Assyrian or Babylonian (superlinear) system of vocalization and accentuation is attributed, known only from unreliable Karaite sources. Pinsker, followed in…

Ahou Savoraï

c. 550

Collective figure of the Savoraim, the last editors of the Babylonian Talmud after the close of the Amoraic era. They added the late explanations and discussions that gave the Talmud its finished…

Amittai

Father of the prophet Jonah. According to rabbinic sources, Amittai originated from the tribe of Zebulun and lived in Zarephath. Tradition holds that the widow who nourished the prophet Elijah there…

Avitus D'auvergne

Bishop of Clermont-Ferrand, in France, in the sixth century, he sought by all means to forcibly convert the Jews of his city, against the practice of tolerance then in force in Frankish Gaul. On…

Bahram Tshubin

General and King of Persia from June 27, 590 to June 26, 591, he overthrew the cruel Hormizd IV, under whom the Jews had been persecuted and the academies of Sura and Pumbedita closed, and was at…

Chosroès Ii. Parwiz

King of Persia from 591 to 628, he invaded Asia Minor and Syria in 602 to avenge, he said, the death of his father-in-law the Byzantine emperor Maurice; many Jews, led by Benjamin of Tiberias, joined…

Cumanus, Ventidius

Roman procurator of Judea (48-52), Ventidius Cumanus must suppress three uprisings: a deadly crush in the Temple of Jerusalem provoked by a Roman soldier, the plundering of villages after the assault…

Dalit Rom-Shiloni

contemporaine

Professor in the Bible Department of the School of Jewish Studies at Tel-Aviv University, chair of the program committee of the international meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature. Her…

Dhu Nuwas, Zur'ah Yusuf ibn Tuban As'ad Abi Karib

Jewish king of Yemen from 515 to 525, known as « Dhou Nouwas » because of his curly hair, he converted to Judaism upon his accession to the throne, taking the name of Joseph, and actively propagated…

Eléazar Hakalir

600–700

Byzantine Jew and poet

Ferreolus

Bishop of Uzès, in France, from 553 to 581. Initially benevolent toward the numerous Jews in the town, he was banished to Paris by Childebert I after a complaint was brought against him, then…

Giza

Sabora, at the head of the Babylonian academy in the first half of the 6th century. The « Seder Tanna'im wa-Amora'im » names him, with Simouna, as the last of the Saboraïm, while the letter of…

Grégoire Ier, le Grand

Gregory I, called the Great, is pope from 590 to 604; born around 540, died in 604. From an ancient Roman senatorial family, he is elected pope after being ambassador to Constantinople and then…

Hanan d'Iskiya

c. 589

Gaon of Pumbedita, one of the very first.

Jehiel ben Asher

Liturgical poet active in Andalusia in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Jehiel ben Asher composed notably a lament of twenty-five stanzas on the persecution of the Jews of Spain in 1391, as…

José ben José

José ben José, called « the orphan », was the oldest paytan known by name; he lived in Palestine, at the latest toward the end of the sixth century. Some ancient sources, unconfirmed, make him a…

Julianus

Leader of the Samaritan revolt of Nablus in 530 against the Romans, son of Samaron (or Sabarona). He took the title of king or emperor and wore the diadem and other insignia of royalty; the revolt…

Justinien

Eastern Roman Emperor from 527 to 565, whose reign was marked, for both Jews and Samaritans, by violent events. Around 530, in Nablus, young Christian men who, according to custom, came each sabbath…

Justinien Ier

482-565

Byzantine emperor whose Novella 146 (553) regulated the reading of the Torah in synagogues and banned the Mishna. His anti-Jewish legislation durably influenced the status of Jews in Christendom, but…

Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf

600–624

poet and one of the chiefs of the Jewish tribe of Medina, Banu Nadir

Mar ben Rav Huna

c. 591

First Gaon of Sura according to traditional lists, around 591.

Mar Zutra II

c. 496-520

Exilarch of Babylonia who attempted to found an independent Jewish state in Mesopotamia (c. 513-520). This brief Jewish principality, established at Mahoza, is one of the last attempts at Jewish…

Marhab

600–628

soldat juif mort lors de la bataille de Khaybar contre Mahomet en 628 de notre ère

Mari ben Dimi

c. 591

Gaon of Pumbedita at the end of the 6th century.

Mohammed

Founder of Islam and the Muslim empire, born in Mecca between 569 and 571 of the Common Era, died in Medina in June 632. Orphaned of his father at birth, he lost his mother at six years old and was…

Pilate, Pontius

Pontius Pilate is the fifth Roman procurator of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, in office from 26 to 36 of the Common Era, succeeding Valerius Gratus. His government, marked according to Philo by…

Rabai de Rob

Youngest savora of the first generation, he succeeded R. Simona at the head of the academy of Poumbedita and died in 550. According to the Letter of Sherira Gaon, he was said to have been gaon, but…

Rabbah de Parziḳi

Babylonian Amora of the sixth generation, contemporary of R. Ashi with whom he had numerous discussions; his learned son Houna was also a disciple of R. Ashi.

Rabina Iii. D'umza

Rav Yosse (José de Galilée)

c. 500

First of the Savoraim ("reasoners"), the intermediate generation between the Amoraim and the Geonim. The Savoraim added to the Talmud complementary explanations and discussions, contributing to the…

Réḥumai Iii

One of the first savoraim, died in 505, in the month of Nissan. He is mentioned with his contemporary R. Yossé, each proposing a different explanation of an expression employed by an earlier…

Sallam ibn Abu al-Huqayq

600–627

Jewish poet

Samaw'al

501–600

Arab poet

Simuna

Simouna, sabora of the second generation, heads the academy of Pumbedita (520-540) while R. Éna holds a similar position in Sura. According to Grätz, these two scholars would have committed the…

Tola