Mass Murder: Pogroms in Ukraine and Russia (1881–1921)

Between 1881 and 1921, the Russian Empire and the regions under its jurisdiction experienced several waves of pogroms—collective violence directed against Jews. The first wave, beginning in 1881, followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II; the pogrom of Kishinev in 1903 aroused international outrage and inspired significant works. The most lethal violence occurred during the civil war of 1918–1921, particularly in Ukraine, where tens of thousands of Jews were killed. These persecutions precipitated the emigration of millions of Jews to Western Europe, the Americas, and Palestine. They also reinforced the sense of urgency surrounding a solution to the Jewish condition and fed Zionism as well as various forms of self-organization and self-defense.

Sources & resources

• The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe ↗
• Encyclopaedia Judaica — 2e éd., Keter/Macmillan